In my previous post, we stated that the goal is to use an array language to explore the problems of implicit parallelism. To get started with that, we need an infrastructure on which we can test our ideas. Specifically, we need to design and implement an array language before we can tangibly do anything.
We are going to start easy and add features as we go along. In particular, we should keep reminding ourselves that we are not making a product to be shipped but a prototype to evaluate our hypotheses. It’s a means to an end, in particular, the compiler we are building is a means to evaluate parallelism and nothing else.
This article is organized as follows. We will first design our array language and determine the constructs we need to support. We follow that up by designing our lexical analyzer, the part that takes a program text and divides it into tokens. Finally, we design a parser that takes a stream of tokens as input and imposes a grammatical structure on them.
Let’s start by deciding what our language will look like.
At first, we will restrict ourselves to simple arrays by only allowing positive integers as array elements. Later on, we will add support for more data types. Concretely, we should add support for an array of arrays and an array of lists to support matrices and graphs respectively.
The language is going to support basic arithmetic operations, that is, it can be used as a calculator.
> 3 * 2
6
> 213 * (123 + 123213)
26270568
We can support array arithmetic like this.
> [121, 122, 1232133] + [4, 5, 6]
[125, 127, 1232139]
We need to support the application of functions to arrays. There are two kinds of functions.
Let’s say we have a function named square that takes an integer as an argument
and returns an integer. We can do something like this.
> square [1, 2, 3]
[1, 4, 9]
Now, let’s say we have a function named sum that takes two integers as arguments and returns a single integer. We can then do something like this.
> sum [1, 2, 3]
6
We can put the following restrictions on these functions.
The commutativity is necessary for functions with two arguments to be applied to arrays. An interesting question is whether we can check these two properties at compile time.
To apply multiple operators at once, we need to group them using parentheses.
> sum (square [1, 2, 3])
> square (sum (double [1, 2, 3])
We also support variables and assignments.
> a = [1, 2, 3]
> b = 42 * 241
Of course, we need to check whether the operations make sense. For instance, this is wrong.
> [1, 2] + [4, 5, 6, 7, 8]
But a parser cannot check these type errors. For that, we need a semantic analyzer, which is going to be a topic of the next post.
To build a lexical analyzer, we need a definition of the basic units of our language. These are called token types. Our tokens are the following:
We represent these tokens using regular expressions. Concretely, we will do that using regular definitions, which are collections of regular expressions such that each expression can use variables that are defined before it.
Finally, we need to implement these regular definitions using finite automata. The data structure we use to implement a finite automaton is called a transition table.
The regular definition for positive integers is this.
digit -> 1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9|0
digits -> digitdigit*
number -> digits
Using standard methods, we can construct a transition table for number like this.
| digit |
------|-------|
1 | 2 | start_state: 1
------|-------| final_states: 2, 3
2 | 3 |
------|-------|
3 | 3 |
------|-------|
The identifiers consist of letters, digits, and underscore, such that they start with a letter. The regular definition looks like this.
letter_ -> a|b|...|y|z|A|B|...|Z|_|
id -> letter_(letter_|digit)*
And the transition table looks like this.
| letter | digit |
------|--------|---------|
1 | 2 | | start_state: 1
------|--------|---------| final_states: 2, 3, 4
2 | 4 | 3 |
------|--------|---------|
3 | 4 | 3 |
------|--------|---------|
4 | 4 | 3 |
------|--------|---------|
For single character tokens like +, -, *, /, (, ), and =, the transition tables are trivial. If we denote these characters as chr,
the table is this.
| chr |
------|-------|
1 | 2 | initial_state: 1
------|-------| final_states: 2
2 | |
------|-------|
The transition table for == is as follows.
| = |
------|-------|
1 | 2 | initial_state: 1
------|-------| final_states: 3
2 | 3 |
------|-------|
Of course, we need to decide between the tokens like = and ==. We will do this by using the policy of maximal munch; if multiple finite automata match
different prefixes of the same string, we choose the automaton with the longest matching prefix.
With transition tables in place, we can implement our lexical analyzer. We will give a link to the complete implementation in the conclusion of this post.
Now let’s turn to how can we design a parser for this. To build a parser, we need to construct context-free grammars to recognize the ways the above token types can be combined. We will build a top-down LL(1) parser.
In the following, we will represent the empty string with the word epsilon.
Let’s tackle arithmetic expressions first. The grammar that enforces operator precedence rules looks like this.
expr --> expr + term | expr - term | term
term --> term * factor | term / factor | factor
factor --> number | (expr)
Since we are building a top-down parser, we need to remove left-recursion from this grammar. The result looks like this.
Operator grammer
expr --> term expr'
expr' --> + term expr' | - term expr' | epsilon
term --> factor term'
term' --> * factor term' | / factor term' | epsilon
factor --> number | (expr)
Now let’s turn to arrays. The grammar for array looks like the following.
Array grammar
array --> [ number rest ]
rest --> , number rest | epsilon
We can support array arithmetic by changing the last production of the Operator grammar from
factor --> number | (expr)
to
factor --> number | array | (expr)
To support assignment, the grammar is this.
assignment --> id = number | id = array
We need to left-factor this to make it amenable to top-down parsing. The result is this.
Assignment grammar
assignment --> id = assignee
assignee --> number | array
These grammars cover most of the constructs we want to support. We can create a single LL(1) parsing table from these grammars using standard algorithms.
The implementation is here. The components we discussed above constitute roughly half of what is traditionally called a compiler frontend. The other half consists of the semantic analyzer, which does type checking, and an intermediate code generator, which translates our parse tree to an intermediate representation that can be more easily translated to a target language.
In the upcoming post, we will discuss the semantic analyzer of this language and see how can we add type checking to this language.